A Footwear Manufacturing Company - New Balance Research Paper - 1

A Footwear Manufacturing Company - New Balance - Research Paper Example Today, the company is tasked with shifting line of corporate social responsibility from just doing what is right into an integrated business strategy and this is what the present case seeks to find means of getting done in a very resounding manner. Â  Over the years, the history, values, and integrity of New Balance have been the company’s major governance strength. This is because, with an early mission to holding on to responsible management practices, the company has not turned its back on such practices to date (Tyssen, 2001). In the midst of this major strength of unshaken organizational culture for integrity and values, the company has failed to pay particular attention to issues of transparency and accountability and this poses a major weakness to the company’ overall governance. This missing link of transparency and accountability has resulted in a situation whereby the company has not been able to identify its business risk and opportunities (Mustapha, 2008). Invariably, the company has not taken advantages of opportunities that could make it larger and more popular than it is today. Â  Consistency is always a term that customers cherish because it keeps them in line with what is happening within the company and avoids the need to change their ways of dealing with the company (Mustapha, 2008). As far as products and services are concerned, this has thus been a major strength of the company, where it has been able to be consistent with its line of sports brand of production.

Diversity Outline Essay Example for Free

Diversity Outline Essay Statement: JP Morgan Chase bank is actually a well respected multinational finance service provider having monetary assets numbering in the trillions of dollars. They give good results in 60 different countries and they are moving forward to grow. Sociology General Sociology Learning Team Assignment: Equal Rights Proposition Outline Select a current social issue related to the rights of ethnic or social groups. Research the subject and existing action plans designed to solve the issue. Develop a 1,050- to 1,500- word comprehensive outline of your proposition to promote equal rights. Be sure to include the following: The issues, challenges, and opportunities experienced by this group in the labor force How society has constructed this group’s identity The legal framework relating to this issue Summary of existing or proposed solutions of differing groups. Consider the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, corporate human resource departments, state or federal laws and regulations, political strategies, government agencies, religious groups, and grass roots organizations. Whether or not this issue exists in other countries, and if so, how it is handled by differing groups Your team’s compromise or alternative to existing solutions Outline your proposition in Microsoft Word. Include at least five academic references in your research. Format your outline consistent with APA guidelines. When it comes to succeeding in college, there are many influential factors. In fact, even your choice of seat can make a difference. Try to score a seat near the front of the lecture hall rather than one right next to the exit. You are more likely to stay engaged and can ask your profess For downloading more course tutorials visit https://bitly.com/1xpzHSE When it comes to succeeding in college, there are many influential factors. In fact, even your choice of seat can make a difference. Try to score a seat near the front of the lecture hall rather than one right next to the exit. You are more likely to stay engaged and can ask your professor questions easily. Sociology General Sociology Learning Team Assignment: Equal Rights Proposition Outline Select a current social issue related to the rights of ethnic or social groups. Research the subject and existing action plans designed to solve the issue. Develop a 1,050- to 1,500- word comprehensive outline of your proposition to promote equal rights. Be sure to include the following: The issues, challenges, and opportunities experienced by this group in the labor force How society has constructed this group’s identity The legal framework relating to this issue Summary of existing or proposed solutions of differing groups. Consider the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, corporate human resource departments, state or federal laws and regulations, political strategies, government agencies, religious groups, and grass roots organizations. Whether or not this issue exists in other countries, and if so, how it is handled by differing groups Your team’s compromise or alternative to existing solutions Outline your proposition in Microsoft Word. Include at least five academic references in your research. Format your outline consistent with APA guidelines.

From Korea to Harvard :: College Admissions Essays

From Korea to Harvard My experience at the international science festival festival last summer was definitely one of the best times I've had. The ten days I spent in Seoul, South Korea, were not just about traveling to a foreign country or even about learning science. To me, the festival was more about meeting people and understanding their cultures. The opening ceremonies of the festival immediately ignited my excitement. I was surrounded on all sides by students from all over the Pacific Rim: Australia, New Zealand, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, Japan, and of course, Korea. It's hard for me to describe how moved and amazed I was to see so many people of so many different backgrounds brought together in one place. All of us were so different and yet so similar. We were brought up and shaped by completely different forces and experiences, but all of us shared a common love-science. I was fascinated to observe in a group setting the contrast between the overly accommodating nature of the easterners and the stronger emphasis on individualism of the westerners. During a group project on creating a model city, I remember the easterners busy building police stations and apartment complexes. A couple of westerners, on the other hand, suggested including a sports stadium and a golf course-options obviously not on the agenda of the easterners, who, however, hesitated to say "No!" I suggested that we could replace the stadium with an airport, an idea quickly accepted by all. This experience showed me that different cultures don't have to conflict but rather can compliment other cultures in finding a better solution. The closing ceremonies were to me the best example of the cultural awareness fostered during the festival: on the first day, almost none of the Americans were brave enough to try the kimchi and mystery meat that was served to us; by the end of the festival, however, all 500 students were singing the APEC theme song together at the top of their lungs. I was completely immersed in culture, diversity, and new ideas for ten short yet extremely fulfilling days. From this experience, I realized that seeing other cultures allowed me to learn more about my own, as it enabled me to understand mine from a different perspective. My experience at the APEC festival helped broaden my perspective and showed me a glimpse of just how many possibilities and ideas there are in the world.

Love And Lovability (wuthering :: essays research papers fc

Love and Lovability   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  “There is no character in Wuthering Heights who is completely lovable, who wins our sympathy completely.';(Bloom 99) Love, in one way or another is the force which makes people unlikable. In Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, people’s adoration for one another is the reason why no character is completely lovable. Receiving too much attention spoiled Catherine Earnshaw. Heathcliff was disliked because he had to grow up without a real family to love him. Finally, Hindley turned into a pitiful man because of the love that he lost. For some, affection can change people for the better, but for others love can be a poison for their souls.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being the only daughter, Catherine was endeared by all those around her. The unwavering love that her family and friends gave her soured her disposition. While on a business trip, her father told his children that they could choose any gift that they wanted. Catherine, being a good rider, “chose a whip.';(40) When she learned that Heathcliff was the reason why she did not get her present, she responded “by grinning and spitting at the stupid little thing.';(41) Since she was used to getting everything that she wanted, she became haughty and had no respect for other people’s feelings.';   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  “Why canst thou not always be a good lass, Cathy?';   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  And she turned her face up to his, and laughed, and answered,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  “Why cannot you always be a good man, Father?'; (47) Even on his deathbed, Catherine chose to vex her father instead of comforting him. Catherine’s faults, which can be attributed to her rich upbringing, do not endear her to readers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Heathcliff, being the villain of the tale, is the most horrid character in Wuthering Heights. He manipulates everyone around him and has no regard for anyone but himself. His rotten nature can be traced back to his early years when he was a “poor, fatherless child.';(43) The lack of parental love and guidance made his life a difficult one. Heathcliff was an unwanted child who brought turmoil to a previously happy household. “So from the very beginning, he bred bad feelings in the house.';(42) Instead of rising from his poor position, he degenerated into an evil beast. When Catherine had begun to spend more time at Thrushcross Grange with the Linton’s, Heathcliff lost his self-respect and dignity. “If he were careless and uncared for before Catherine’s absence, he had been ten times more so since.

Military appts Essay

Doctor’s appointments are missed each and every day by people who either forget to show up or choose not to call and cancel their appointment. One of the reasons why it is best to try and keep your doctor’s appointment is because it is the polite thing to do. Would you arrange a job interview with a company you were serious about working for but then fail to show up? No, not in the civilian world. It is very important to schedule routine doctor appointments regularly to ensure proper treatment as needed to care for my health as an injured soldier. I schedule my appointments so I can work on treating my injuries physically and mentally so when I medically retire I can hope for a better future of recovering and living a healthy life with a greater chance of being alive a lot longer than if I didn’t take proper treatment. If I didn’t think appointment were important than I would see my health go downhill and the recovery would be nearly impossible. It’s very important to be on time to my appointments because if I were late I wouldn’t receive the proper treatment I need, I would be taking time away from another soldier that thinks his appointments are just as important for his treatment and it wouldn’t be fair to anyone, including myself and my healthy life and another reason is because it is my place of duty while in the military. When scheduling appointments you do not want to miss them for a number of reasons. If you miss the appointment, you are not only wasting your doctor’s time. You could also place your health at risk if you do not start your treatment as quickly as possible. It is rude to your doctor and you are not following through with treatment that’s important for your health. Someone who also needed treatment sooner could have had the opportunity to be seen if I was going to schedule and miss my appointment. One of the primary concerns with missed appointments is that they limit access to care for multiple patients. When patients fail to appear for their appointments or they don’t call and cancel in advance, it’s kind of hard to have enough appointments to meet the health-care needs of other patients. Making an appointment is the same as guaranteeing you will be somewhere at the agreed upon time. Just as you expect a provider to be there as scheduled, the provider expects you to be there as well. The dental office supports hundreds of members a day and works hard to keep the process of seeing Soldiers flowing smoothly. Missing an appointment interrupts that process and creates unnecessary additional work for schedulers, providers, and staff. Our goal is to support the organization that supports us by meeting all appointments. Although I can understand your missing an appointment because of recent distractions, there is no valid excuse for missing an appointment. We must find a way to make sure you don’t miss future appointments. People use a variety of methods but they all share one thing in common: they all realize, at the moment they make the appointment, that they have made a promise to be present at a certain time and place and must find a way to make sure they meet their obligation. Some people have established methods that they use over and over such as writing the appointment down in an appointment book and reviewing it daily. Others write it down on a sticky note and put it somewhere where they will see it every day to remind them of the impending appointment. I will not dictate the method you use because our goal is to make sure you meet all future appointments and the method I suggest may not work for you. You must choose a method that works for you and ensure you make all future appointmets because further missed appointments will result in more severe action and affect your career.

Stolen Generation -Aboriginals- essays

Stolen Generation -Aboriginals- essays The role a family plays in bring up a child is: caring for them, protecting them, educating in behavior and customs of their social culture. Aboriginal families are very similar with a couple of additional roles. They are: feelings of kinship (bonding with their extended family) kinship is also the respect for elders who pass on the important traditions, values and stories within their culture, the understanding of values of sharing, understanding of dreamtime and of the spiritual life. In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) produced a report that told us that the Europeans thought aboriginals had no right to keep their child, so they were removed and placed in another family, thinking this will benefit the child more. After being removed from there families they were told they would be placed in another white family who would take care of them, and if old enough would be paid a wage for working for them. But in most cases this did not happen. Instead they were physically and sexually abused, worked very hard and received little to nothing than what they were told they would receive. Even those that were placed in a loving family felt feelings of loneliness and reject. The main recommendations of the report was to assist Aboriginals in reuniting with their family, an apology from the institution that had been involved with taking the children, a public recognition of the past injustices through a National Sorry Day. The state parliaments did apologize but the federal government refused to apologize (But two years later did the did mention regret over the situation). Children taken (stolen) from there families. The stolen generation didnt just last a couple of week or a couple of years. It lasted a few generations from when the Europeans arrived until it ceased a few decades ago. The government hasnt been able to apologize to the aboriginals for the crime they have committed, and the...

Business Law Essays - Types Of Business Entity, Business Law

Business Law Essays - Types Of Business Entity, Business Law Business Law Final Exam 1. John owned a cat which wandered into his yard. John was charged with violating a local ordinance which read: "It shall be illegal to permits cows, horses, goats, or other animals to wander about in a yard that is not property fenced." The ordinance had been passed over fifty years ago when wandering animals destroyed neighbor's crops. Is John guilty of violating this ordinance? Using two techniques of statutory interpretation, discuss. 2.Suppose that Perry sues Davis on the theory that Davis is so ugly Perry suffers intense emotional distress in his presence. Davis thinks correctly that there is no rule of law allowing Perry to recover. What procedural device should Davis use in this circumstance? Describe. 3.The local city council adopted an ordinance restricting the local skating rink to persons under 16 years of age. Plaintiffs challenged the ordinance under the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment. Under the holding in the Stanglin case in your text, what results and why? 4.Suppose that someone argues that, contrary to popular belief, corporate decision-making is almost completely irrational. If by chance this assertion were true, it would undermine two major arguments made by defenders of the corporation. What are these arguments and how would the assertion undermine them? (One of your answers would probably trouble "corporate reformers" as well.) 5.Acting pursuant to a warrant obtained upon a sufficient showing of probable cause, Officer Beau Bogus arrested Earl Sleazeman for the crime of murder. Officer Bogus neglected to give Sleazeman the Miranda warnings at the time of the arrest or at any time thereafter. During "booking" at the police station, Officer Bogus required an unwilling Sleazeman to submit to fingerprinting. (Information obtained through the fingerprinting process ultimately proved useful, because the police discovered Sleazeman's fingerprints on the door know to the front door of the house where the dead body of the murder victim had been found). After booking was completed, Officer Bogus and Detective Harriet Dirty interrogated Sleazeman still without the Miranda warnings ever having been given at the police station. During the course of the interrogation, Sleazeman confessed to the murder for which he had been arrested. Sleazeman later retained attorney Nola Contendere to represent him in the murder case. She has filed, on Sleazeman's behalf, a motion to suppress (i.e., motion requesting a court order excluding certain evidence) in which she argues that the fingerprinting of Sleazeman and the interrogation of him violated his Fifth Amendment rights and his Miranda rights. Sleazeman's attorney argues, therefore, that the exclusionary rule should be applied, as to prevent the state from using the following evidence against Sleazeman: (a) any evidence derived from the fingerprinting that took place during booking; and (b) Sleazeman's confession. Is Sleazeman's attorney correct in her arguments that Sleazeman's Fifth Amendment rights and Miranda rights were violated? Why or why not? As to the evidence listed above as (a) and (b), mentioned in Sleazeman's attorney's motion to suppress, state whether the exclusionary rule would prevent the prosecution from using that evidence against Sleazeman? Explain your reasoning. 6.Jed's roommates played a trick on him by abducting him from his room and tying him up in his underwear on his girlfriend's porch. Jed, who was intoxicated, slept through the whole incident and didn't wake up until the next morning, after his girlfriend had untied him and dressed him. Under what legal theories, if any, is Jed entitled to recover damages from his "friends" under these facts? 7. What are four factors courts consider in determining whether an activity is "abnormally dangerous" for purpose of strict liability? 8.In 1955, Merton, an English professor, wrote a book of poetry which he copyrighted. 340 copies were sold nationwide. In 1975, the Pink Punk, a rock band, recorded a song with lyrics exactly like the words of one of Merton's poems. The poem occupied one page in a 112 page book. If Merton sues Pink Punk for copyright infringements, and Pink Punk employs a fair use defense, which two factors are most likely to help the group? 9. It has been said that one of the major factors which influenced the evolution of modern contract law was the fact that, in the later decades of the nineteenth century, an increasingly large number of transactions no longer resembled the stereotypical transaction envisioned by classical contract law. Explain this statement, contrasting classical contract law's assumptions with latter day reality. 10.Over a period of several months, ABC Manufacturing Company and XYZ Plumbing Supply have been negotiating over the sale of copper tubing. They have reached an

DDay Success or Disaster essays

DDay Success or Disaster essays Twenty years after the end of the First World War a man named Adolph Hitler of Germany began a Second World War. On September 1, 1939 Germany invaded Poland, which had a treaty with France and England to protect them. The English, French and Polish were all unprepared to fight, and as a result were beaten terribly. By the next spring France had been totally taken by the Germans. While Germany and there allies, Italy, controlled all of the western part of Europe. England, France and now America had to figure a way to take the control of Europe again. There decision was to try and storm a beach in Normandy France. It would be one of the bloodiest war battles in U.S. History. This storming of Omaha Beach would be a success because even though the allies lost a lot of men, they still were able to take the beach, which led them to take the continent. This was the beginning of the end for Hitler and his Nazis. Hitler and his partners, Japan and Italy, made many mistakes, which op ened the door for the allied forces to make this operation possible. Germanys big mistake was that Hitler had assembled a massive naval fleet to try and invade England. Hitlers thinking was that if he did try to go against one of the greatest naval fleets in the world that he would not be able to get it done. He also realized that the British would anything to stop a German invasion. So Hitler delayed and eventually cancelled the attack. Even if he had lost the invasion into England, he could have at least damaged the British navy. His partner, Italy, had brought in northern Africa, and Japan brought the US in when they not only bombed the navy base Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, but also hit other U.S. possessions like the Philippians. Now that the U.S. was in the war, Germany had its hands full. The allies kept planning a time when they could go ashore and take control of France again. In the summer of 1942 Britain and Canada actually t...

IPO analysis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

IPO analysis - Case Study Example This technique, OpenIPO , was an invention aimed at making pricing and allocation of the IPO share a transparent and an easy-to-do process for the issuers and to do away with any possible conflicts of interests, as may arise, between the sponsors and issuers as had been the predominant case with the former/ traditional IPO. In addition, this company (W.R Hambrecht Company) also provides an option of the traditional technique, as may be the preference of the intended users who wish not use the new online initiatives. Other services such as the venture capital, M&A, market making, proprietary investments, financing of the private placements, and online brokerage businesses, are the traditional services that this institution still provide to ensure undoubted satisfaction levels of its clients. As if this is not enough, W.R Hambrecht Company further supports approximately 36 companies to attain their IPO via their new application (the online auction system) i.e., the Overstock.com and Go ogle.Inc, and other 15 companies to use the traditional style. Strategic considerations for entrepreneurs to evaluate while determining on whether to use Dutch auction or traditional IPO approach to taking a company public W.R Hambrecht Company recommends prior consultations and advisory services, as a method of strategic approach for entrepreneurs to effectively use while making business decisions on whether to use either the traditional IPO or the Dutch auction/OpenIPO. Such decisions have to be made under the premeditated considerations of; their institutions’ goals, pricing, shares allocations, and risks and returns that are linked to any of the options that a company would centralize on. For instance, both OpenIPO and traditional techniques present very different means of allocating their shares. A sponsor has higher priorities in making decisions that promptly determine the amount of shares that can be allocated to whomever suit their recommendations, an authority that is vulnerable to abuse, in the traditional IPO. This has the potential of impacting negatively in case a stock is mispriced. A substantial case is when a sponsor decides to allocate the available shares to individual accounts of business supervisory in other institutions of their business interest, a situation that is efficiently avoidable in the case of Dutch auction/ OpenIPO. OpenIPO does its allocation without malicious considerations such as personal interests in shares allocation. Thus, is guarantees fairness (no spinning) and only allocate shares to bid winners, i.e., those who placed their bids based on the price or higher factors. The second benefit of using the OpenIPO is that it guarantees an open platform for all irrespective of whether an investor is a larger institution or small enterprises, as had been the trend with the traditional IPO shares allocation. Characteristics of the OpenIPO that makes it to override the traditional IPO is that it allows limited incentives f or the small investor to purchase shares based on the underwriters’ quoted prices (which are lower), and quickly sell them off to gain a bigger profit margin. A second factor that OpenIPO will help to eliminate will be the possibility of investors to bid too low by ensuring that those who overbid and underbid are sold for the shares at equal prices. This second advantage would help the issuers to earn more, money they would have not realized while using the traditional I

Leadership Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership Reflection - Essay Example leader is the transformational leadership in which I try to set down such standards that those following me find easy to follow by their own willingness. Other domains in which I see myself as a leader are intrapersonal leadership because I tend to lead my own self in a very effective way; and, interpersonal leadership because I believe that I conduct effective relationship management with my stakeholders through effectual conflict management based on active communication and collaboration. I keep everyone on the platform happy and satisfied and keep them motivated through personal attention and rewards. These were some domains in which I see myself as a good and ethical leader. 2. I take care of the employees so as to preserve a vigorous environment within the organization. I verify that the salaries are being paid in time; try to pursue a system of rewards and bonuses; and, listen to the employees’ troubles and try to remove them. This keeps them working at high competence. I make agreements with business partners while respecting their decisions. This confidence between the partners makes the organization grow and maintains its integrity. I know how to schedule my projects keeping in mind the time frame and instruct the team to manage work schedule accordingly. I know that I have to abide by the rules and regulations I have agreed upon while signing a contract and will never back off. All this adds to the progress of my organization. Strengths that I wish to develop include vision and framing my actions according to ethics. I want to develop a brawny vision so that I am able to solve problems with ethical values. I want to be able to frame my acti ons in such a way that they go just in accordance to my inner beliefs and standards because according to Freeman and Stewart (2006), leadership is â€Å"a fully ethical task†. 3. When I look at my past, I come across many events that have changed my inner self to the kind of person I am today. My leadership skills

An evaluation of a successful media campaign for a 2009 film Essay

An evaluation of a successful media campaign for a 2009 film - Essay Example After two years Transformers 2 was released in the month of June 2009 to a highly receptive audience in Europe and North America. The film is based on the epic battle between two forces – Decepticons versus Autobots (Gale Reference Team,2007). The former is led by Starscream of Cybertron while the latter is led by Optimums. The whole story of the film revolves around one particular character, viz. Sam Witwicky. He is a human being caught up in the conflict because he has strange visitations from Cybertronians. Finally, the battle for the earth expands in to a battle for the universe and as expected, Decepticons are defeated by Autobots. Being a science fiction Transformers 2 has all the characteristics of both imaginable and unimaginable stretches of human perception (http://news-briefs.ew.com). What is so significant about the film is the notion that the earth and humans would be protected by an alien force against any possible attack by a more powerful civilization. As with any other science fiction involving heavy machines, Transformer 2 is also a slugfest among a variety of metallic machines that incidentally have names as human individuals would have (www.scifisquad.com). However there is one particular aspect of the film that cannot be brushed aside as mere imagination of Steven Spielberg. The psychology behind a universal battle is based on the thematic paradigm that pits the evil against the good. Spielberg has invariably identified both connotations and denotations of the remotest possibility, i.e. a war between two extraterrestrial forces over human affairs. In other words the existence of extraterrestrials is without logic; yet there are people who subscribe to the theory of extraterrestrials. The melodramatic characterization of fighting machines on the basis of quality attributes farfetched though, human imagination does not reject the possibility of a no-holds-barred slugfests

AUDITOR INDEPENDENCE AND AUDITOR SCEPTICISM Essay

AUDITOR INDEPENDENCE AND AUDITOR SCEPTICISM - Essay Example To justify these responsibilities an auditor must possess certain personal qualities such as honesty and ethicality. To be precise, the auditor whether internal or external, has his responsibilities towards the governance of an organisation and its quality (The Institute of Internal Auditors, 2005). However, in the realistic phenomenon auditors have been constantly judged on their personal qualities, which directly indicate to the appropriateness of the concept of auditor independence and scepticism. The concept of auditor independence and scepticism were both raised with the focus on the nature of responsibilities which a professional needs to abide while ensuring the quality of the financial statements of a company (Kleinman & Et. Al., 2001). Nature of Auditor Independence and Auditor Scepticism The Nature of the Auditor Independence To define the term ‘Auditor Independence’, authors have referred it as the foundation of auditing in a realistic behaviour. Relying on th e nature of auditing, auditors need to identify, control and eradicate the inefficiency of the financial statements produced by the accountants of a firm in order to ensure the accurate status of the financial health of the organisation. Auditor independence, in this scenario assists the auditor to render value-added services to the client and the community at large. Auditor independence is strongly influenced by the audit process. The process instigates from the selection procedure and ends by reporting the findings and opinion of the auditor. Therefore, the concept of audit independence emerges to be crucial with due consideration to its importance and nature. It is in this context, that audit independence is implemented based on three basic principles, i.e. the auditors must belong to the external environment of the organisation and therefore are prohibited to be a part of the client organisation, the auditors are also proscribed to audit their own workings and cannot play any ad vocacy role to support the organisation if found guilty (Rezaee, 2007). Nature of Auditor Scepticism Auditor Scepticism is another concept introduced in the auditing practices, which refers to the personal skill of the auditors to challenge the management’s statements in order to critically evaluate the accuracy of the financial statements of an organisation. However, scepticism needs to be controlled due to the fact that challenging almost any and every assertion of a well established company will in turn affect the willingness to publish the financial statements (Peursem, 1989). The factors which play a crucial role in determining the appropriateness of scepticism are the regulations prescribed in relation to auditing and the financial practise of the company and the nature of the corporate. To be precise, the nature of auditor scepticism indicates to be an attitude of questioning the management and identifying and eliminating the probable chances of producing misstatements related to error or deception. It is of vital importance due to the fact that it not only ensures the auditing to be confirmed with extra professional efficacy but also proves supportive in performing the task rigorously. However, the level of

Organization Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organization Development - Essay Example This institution was founded in 1979 as a social service agency in St. Paul, Minnesota. In 1987, the agency opened an office in Bamburg, South Carolina with the executive director serving as the only staff person. This company does not have a merit system in place. There are enough employees now and the organization wants to implement an appropriate merit system. Within a few months of operation in South Carolina, the first child was placed in one of our foster homes and this institution have consistently grown since. By 1994, the need for serving a special population of foster youth was identified and the agency began providing a medically-fragile program. In March, 2005, Growing Home Southeast acquired the programs of Family Resources, Inc. of Beaufort, SC, increased its staff size to nearly fifty employees statewide, managed services for more than 200 clients and entered the home-based services market. Analysis of the organizational status of the Growing Home Southeast was conducted. Various aspects of the organization were studied such as the management of the organization, projects, supervision of the institution, management of client relationships and strategies. The researcher also performed extensive analysis of database and system response times with custom realtime diagnostic tools, and designed optimizations to address performance, bottlenecks, and increasing database capacity fourfold. According to Choo (2001), scanning or browsing behavior is influenced by external factors such as environmental turbulence and resource dependency, organizational factors such as the nature of the business and the strategy pursued, information factors such... This essay stresses that environmental scanning is the acquisition and use of information about events, trends, and relationships in an organization's external environment, the knowledge of which would assist management in planning the organization's future course of action. Thispaper makes a conclusion that organizations scan the environment in order to understand the external forces of change so that they may develop effective responses which secure or improve their position in the future. They scan in order to avoid surprises, identify threats and opportunities, gain competitive advantage, and improve long- and short-term planning. To the extent that an organization's ability to adapt to its outside environment is dependent on knowing and interpreting the external changes that are taking place, environmental scanning constitutes a primary mode of organizational learning. Environmental scanning includes both looking at information (viewing) and looking for information (searching). It could range from a casual conversation at the lunch table or a chance observation of an angry customer, to a formal market research program or a scenario planning exercise. A sound business practices in place at the Growing Home Southeast will allow clients to meet their b asic necessities of living in addition to being able to save for more costly nonessential items. In addition, the organization may implement an electronic time keeping system to better manage overtime and payroll costs of its employees.

AUDITOR INDEPENDENCE AND AUDITOR SCEPTICISM Essay

AUDITOR INDEPENDENCE AND AUDITOR SCEPTICISM - Essay Example To justify these responsibilities an auditor must possess certain personal qualities such as honesty and ethicality. To be precise, the auditor whether internal or external, has his responsibilities towards the governance of an organisation and its quality (The Institute of Internal Auditors, 2005). However, in the realistic phenomenon auditors have been constantly judged on their personal qualities, which directly indicate to the appropriateness of the concept of auditor independence and scepticism. The concept of auditor independence and scepticism were both raised with the focus on the nature of responsibilities which a professional needs to abide while ensuring the quality of the financial statements of a company (Kleinman & Et. Al., 2001). Nature of Auditor Independence and Auditor Scepticism The Nature of the Auditor Independence To define the term ‘Auditor Independence’, authors have referred it as the foundation of auditing in a realistic behaviour. Relying on th e nature of auditing, auditors need to identify, control and eradicate the inefficiency of the financial statements produced by the accountants of a firm in order to ensure the accurate status of the financial health of the organisation. Auditor independence, in this scenario assists the auditor to render value-added services to the client and the community at large. Auditor independence is strongly influenced by the audit process. The process instigates from the selection procedure and ends by reporting the findings and opinion of the auditor. Therefore, the concept of audit independence emerges to be crucial with due consideration to its importance and nature. It is in this context, that audit independence is implemented based on three basic principles, i.e. the auditors must belong to the external environment of the organisation and therefore are prohibited to be a part of the client organisation, the auditors are also proscribed to audit their own workings and cannot play any ad vocacy role to support the organisation if found guilty (Rezaee, 2007). Nature of Auditor Scepticism Auditor Scepticism is another concept introduced in the auditing practices, which refers to the personal skill of the auditors to challenge the management’s statements in order to critically evaluate the accuracy of the financial statements of an organisation. However, scepticism needs to be controlled due to the fact that challenging almost any and every assertion of a well established company will in turn affect the willingness to publish the financial statements (Peursem, 1989). The factors which play a crucial role in determining the appropriateness of scepticism are the regulations prescribed in relation to auditing and the financial practise of the company and the nature of the corporate. To be precise, the nature of auditor scepticism indicates to be an attitude of questioning the management and identifying and eliminating the probable chances of producing misstatements related to error or deception. It is of vital importance due to the fact that it not only ensures the auditing to be confirmed with extra professional efficacy but also proves supportive in performing the task rigorously. However, the level of

Law & Morality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Law & Morality - Essay Example Stephen argues that such exceptions make Mill’s principle empty (Koons, 2003) but Higton (n.d.) clarifies that Mill refers to societies so backward that they are incapable of understanding the harm principle, let alone be responsible enough to apply them. Such classes lack the level of education and understanding which would enable them to benefit from the Harm principle. The principle implies that if I do not wear crash helmet it does not cause harm to anyone so the state .. The definition of the word ‘harm’ has been considered vague and lacking in preciseness. Koons says that Mill allows the state to compel members of the society to aid others but it includes only direct harm and not the harm that I do others in harming myself. Trying to draw a line of distinction between offensive act and harmful one can lead to a dilemma. A person running naked on the street can be interpreted as an offensive act by some but a harmful act towards children by others. Homosexual act behind doors is more offensive behind doors than heterosexual act in public. Thus if an offensive act is done in privacy with full consciousness of the outcome, then it complies with the norms of the harm principle but this has again been a cause of controversy as people contend that there should be no distinction between public and private actions. An act in private can equally and adversely affect the society but Feinberg states that causing offense is less serious than harmin g someone so the penalty imposed for an offensive act should not be as heavy as that of harm (Mill, 2002).

Research Proposal - Brief Provisional Title Essay Example for Free

Research Proposal Brief Provisional Title Essay Brief Provisional Title: To what extent does media reporting, during a two-month period in 2000 contribute to the vigilantes towards paedophiles. The main aims of the dissertation: It can be suggested amongst academic literature that much of the heightened attacks against paedophiles is media generated, generally the media is perceived as instigators of provoking and motivating heightened anxiety and vigilantes amongst the public domain (refer to Kitzinger, 1999b and Soothill, 1991). Ultimately it can be claimed that tabloid newspapers have led the way in the construction of the personification of paedophiles, often portraying them as perverts, evil and beasts, reinforcing the publics beliefs that paedophiles are somewhat a different species apart from ordinary people. It can be platitude amongst academic commentators that the newsprint media do more than merely reflect social reality (Greer, 2003, P.44), the media can be accused of amplifying a moral panic or even cultivating a mob rule mentality through such conceptualisations. The print media potentially play an active role in criminological theory, too exemplify labelling theory. The labelling theory focuses on the premise that crime and criminal behaviour is a social process, that of the relationship between an individual who is defined as deviant and those who have the power to label such individual as deviant. These general propositions attribute the media as an important factor in such process, thus helping to construct the paedophile with a hate figure identity. The process by which labelling occurs has social and psychological implications on those who are labelled, which in my research is paedophiles. Embedded within such theory exists the belief that such individuals who are labelled are likely to incorporate the label within their self-image and such stigmatisation is likely to affect how they are treated by others in the future. Indeed Spencer, 1999 proclaims that where paedophiles are hounded out, they will go underground (Spencer, 1999, P.178) . Such a theory will be applied into my dissertation to attempt to explain whether the labelling of paedophiles by the print media contribute to the vigilantes towards paedophiles. However throughout my research process there existed an identifiable relationship between the failures of legislation, in accordance to the protection of children and vigilante attacks towards paedophiles, as people seem to have lost confidence in the system and have decided to take the law into their own hands (David, 1997, P.20). But such a relationship will not be acknowledged within my research, as my aim is to examine the way in which paedophiles are represented and labelled through print media reporting. Examining such relationship between legislation and vigilante attacks would inevitably result in me exploring outside the realm of my research question. The central research question I wish to explore is: To what extent does media reporting, during a two-month period contribute to the vigilantes towards paedophiles? My initial hypothesis is that negative labelling of paedophiles perceived through the print media structure individuals perceptions. There also exists a certain complicity towards the way in which the print media reinforces or contributes peoples actions to act violently towards paedophiles. Reasons for undertaking research: Although I have never worked with sex offenders or with victims who have experienced such abuse, the desire to focus my dissertation on paedophiles originated from the tragic death of Sarah Payne in July 2000 by Roy Whiting, a previous convicted sex offender. What jilted my interest was the profound response of the public and media, which triggered a campaign for the implementation of Sarahs Law. Such a campaign resulted in the actions of the Sunday newspaper, the News Of The World publicly naming and shaming convicted paedophiles. To me this is detrimental not only to children but also to paedophiles are they are likely to pose a greater risk to children. A great concern of mine is the way in which paedophiles are stereotypically represented by the media, as it notably feeds the hysteria of public fear and incites such hostility for lynch mob frenzy. Methodology and methods: To investigate the way in which paedophiles are portrayed in the print media and does such portrayal reinforce violent behaviour, I wish to examine both written text and visual images, thus resulting in my methodology consisting of a qualitative approach. My methodology will allow me to explore the ideological themes and stereotypical language embedded within such press report, evaluating whether conceptualisations of the paedophile incite a violent mentality. The source of documentation I wish to analyse in my methodology, will be from national newspapers from the year 2000, such as the News Of The World, The Sun, the Daily Mail and The Guardian, which will consist of a time framework of two months, preferably being the months July and August. I wish to explore these specific months as the newspaper, the News Of The World, in the summer of 2000 undertook such initiative to publicly name and shame convicted paedophiles. Examining newspapers during this period will inevitably provide me with a rich source of information to evaluate and analyse. Due to my study concentrating on a limited time framework and a specific theme it is fair to illustrate that my study will not represent the norm of the print media in relation to the way in which paedophiles are ascribed with such label, my study will only represent a fragment of the print media. However my intentions from my findings is to elucidate the representation of paedophiles within the print media and provide a rigorous analysis concerning the way in which the media militates violent behaviour towards paedophiles. Thus in relation to my research there may exist some difficulties I may encounter these may include, with respect to a paedophile report, me questioning to what extent a report featured in a newspaper is actually valid, which could result in my findings representing a misinterpretation of paedophiles. With respect to resources, I may encounter difficulties in relation to gaining access to newspaper articles from the year 2000. Some articles can be gained from UWCN Library but other articles from newspapers such as the News Of The World and The Sun may result in me researching beyond the UWCN library to libraries such as Cardiff or even paying to order back issues from the internet. Bibliography: David, M. (1997). Child Protection, Moral Outrage or Mob Rule? Community Care. 7 August, PP. 20-21. Greer, C. (2003). Sex Crime And The media, Cornwall: Willan Publishing. Kitzinger, J. (2002). The Ultimate Neighbour Form Hell? Stranger Danger And The Media Framing Paedophiles. In: Jewkes, Y and Letherby, G. Criminology: A reader, London: Sage Publications. McDonald, l. (2001). Sex Offender, The Home Office And the Sunday Papers, Journal of Social Welfare and family Law 23 (1), PP. 103-108. Reiner, R (2002). Media Made Criminality. In: Maguire, M and et-al. The Oxford Handbook Of Criminology, Oxford university press. Thomas, T. (2002). Sex Crime, Sex Offending And Society, Cornwall, Willan publishing. Tierney, J. (1996). Criminology, Theory And Context, England: Longman. White, R and Haines, F. (1996). Crime and Criminology, An Introduction, Oxford University Press.

Professional Practice With Children Families And Carers Social Work Essay

Professional Practice With Children Families And Carers Social Work Essay As a result of the 2011 riots seen in the United Kingdom, Louise Casey (2012) was commissioned by the coalition government to write a report entitled Listening to Troubled Families. This essay will critique the report and consider if government austerity measures could impact in social care provision and outcomes for service users. It will discuss the narrative of one family identified in the report whom require intervention and support in order to safeguard their children (Casey 2012). It will give an outline of the development and impact of legislation and policy guidance on social work practice for children, families and carers. Furthermore it will consider academic research and theories that inform social work practice when working with such families; for instance; ecological theories, assessment, life span models of development, professional power and attachment theory. This essay will also discuss the skills necessary for contemporary social work practitioners to engage effecti vely with children and families. It will argue that inter-professional, anti-oppressive, multi-professional and reflective practice is paramount to successful outcomes for families who require support from services. The term troubled families was first used by David Cameron (Cameron, 2011), and later defined by the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) as households having serious problems and chaotic personal histories. Cameron (2012) intends to ensure those identified in the report as troubled 120,000 families, turn their lives around. These families are characterised as; having no adult in employment, children who do not attend school and family members partaking in anti-social behaviour and criminal activities. By reducing costs and improving outcomes, the results based funding scheme aims to change service delivery for families (Cameron, 2011). Welshman (2012), states that this policy agenda is the latest reconstruction of the underclass debate. Giddens (1973, cited in Haralambos and Holborn, 2002) claims that Britain has an underclass of people who are disadvantaged on the labour market because they lack qualifications and skills, and may face discrimination, prejudice and marginalisation in society. The New Labour Government (1997-2010) linked disorderly behaviour to problem families and focussed on individual deficiencies rather than an acknowledgment of structural constraints, for instance; the effects of poverty on family relationships and parenting (Hill and Wright, 2003; Gillies, 2005, in Parr, 2009). New Labour implemented Family Intervention Projects (FIP) that were framed from the Respect Action Plan in 2006. This was criticized by a parental and family support organisation Parentline Plus (2006), as threats of punishments to parents would impact negatively on families, and parents could be less willing to seek support before they reached crisis (BBC News, 2006). Initiatives like Signpost, provided intensive levels of support and understanding of multidimensional complexities, comprising of effective intervention for children and families within their communities (Dillane et al 2001, cited in Parr, 2009 ). Featherstone (2006) maintains this initiative was within the context of the social investment state, encouraging investment in human capital as opposed to direct economic provision provided by the state in the form of welfare payments. Postle, (2002 cited in Parr, 2009) argues that Signpost intervention was social work at its best allowing social workers time for effective co mmunication and partnership working rather than the policing of families. Levitas (2012) argued against research methodology used in the Casey Report (2012) and of the idea of multi-disadvantaged families being the source of societys ills. Levitas (2012) claims; that the figure of 120,000 was founded on data from a secondary analysis of a Children and Families Report (2004). Literature suggests the figure of 120,000 families is underestimated, the number of multi-disadvantaged families is significantly greater (Levitas, 2012; Hern, 2012). The initial 2004 study found no evidence to indicate that the families were trouble makers as proposed but did find that they were families in trouble. As a result of changes in taxation, welfare benefits, spending cuts and the continuing effects of the economic downturn (Levitas, 2012). Welshman (2012) advocates that history provides important lessons for policymakers and addressing both structural and behavioural causes of poverty is likely to be more effective than counting and defining such families. He believes there is little knowledge regarding reasons for behaviours and calls for research for combating problems that these families encounter. Casey (2012) has given an insight by using service users narratives and received positive responses from interviewees. However, her research does have further limitations; a small sample of sixteen families, all of whom were at crisis point when they accepted working with the FIP (Casey 2012). Soloman (2012) claims that vast number of vulnerable families are being left without any support. Casey (2012) made no reference to ethnicity and culture of the families, therefore giving no insight into diversity (Clifford and Burke, 2009). Bailey (2012) believes that the report breaches ethical standards for social research, the f amilies interviewed are participants in the FIP and therefore had a power of sanction over them, therefore it may have been difficult for the families to decline from the study. No written information on the risks of participation was provided; he also suggests that ethical approval was not applied for. Bailey, (2012) believes that there is a risk of identifying these families. Casey (2012) acknowledged that the information was not representative of 120,000 families but claims that it provides a sound basis for policy. Nevertheless, Bailey (2012) argues that there is no place for unethical research in public policy making. Comparative studies were not conducted on families with similar economic and social circumstances who are not described as troubled. Casey (2012) discussed intergenerational cycles of abuse, violence, alcohol and drug misuse as well as worklessness being reasons for troubled families placing the oneness on individuals (Levitas, 2012). Kelly (2012) welcomes the Governments commitment to aid families. He proposes that most parents on low incomes are good parents and believes that it is naive to conflate illness, inadequate housing and poverty with substance misuse and crime. Kelly (2012) also argues that many families involved with Family Action are socially isolated, invisible to support services who struggle on low incomes rather than displaying anti-social behaviours. The case studies gave the parents perspective, however, the voice and opinion of the child was unheard. Ofsted (2010) found practitioners concentrated too much on the needs of the parents and overlooked the implication s for the child. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 12 declares, the views of the child must be respected, Article 3 states that the childs best interests must be a primary concern (Unicef, 1992). This essay will now discuss social work practice in relation to one of the families identified in Louise Caseys Report (2012) Chris and Julie (appendix 1). In the past, adults like Chris and Julie who had learning disabilities may have been prevented from becoming parents, eugenic theories dominated, with the aim to ensure children with similar disabilities were not procreated (Cleaver and Nicholson 2007). However, in recent years attitudes are changing in favour of people with learning disabilities giving them the same rights as other citizens regarding sexuality and family life. An increased number of people with learning difficulties now have wider opportunities for independent living. According to Haavik and Menninger (1981 cited in Booth and Booth, 1993, p 203) deinstitutionalization enabled many people with learning disabilities to participate in their community. Duffy (2006, cited in Thompson et al 2008), states that self-determination is a core principle in attaining citizens hip in western society. The shift in opinions and principles is evident in government legislation and guidance thus impacting on social work practice, for instance; Valuing People: a new strategy for learning disability for the 21st century (2001), (DoH 2001) and Valuing People Now: The Delivery Plan (20102011) Making it happen for everyone gives guidance for all professionals supporting people with learning disabilities living in the community (DoH 2011). In relation to the case scenario, Article 8 of The Human Rights Act 1998 (.1) provides Chris and Julie with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a right to respect for private and family life, his home and correspondence; however, any interference with this right must be necessary and lawful with regard to public safety, national security, prevention of public disorders and crime, or for the protection of rights and freedoms of others. Both Julie and Chris have a protected characteristic of disability and therefore under the Equality Act (2010) should be protected from direct and indirect discrimination from service providers. However, childrens rights are paramount and override those of their parents or carers (DoH, 1998). Access to learning disability services in England was governed by Fair Access to Care Services (FACS) (DoH, 2003), until it was superseded by Putting People First (2007) and highlighted the need for a personalised Adult Social Care System (DoH, 2007). Emerson et al (2005) found one in fifteen adults with learning disabilities living in England were parents and this research emphasised that approximately half of children born to parents with learning disabilities are at risk from abuse and twenty five per cent no longer lived with their parents (McGaw,2000). Further research indicates that the majority of services are as yet inadequate in meeting the needs of families with learning disabilities (McGaw 2000). McInnis et al (2011) similarly found complexities in determining eligibility for service users. They indicated that decisions regarding eligibility are not only determined by assessment results but by local government resources. They advocate equality and argue that changes in assessment tools are necessary when working with families with learning difficulties. Chris and Julie reflect these findings as they only received intervention when they faced difficulties caring for their children. The parental skills model would be advantageous for practitioners as it is designed to assist the assessment process when working with Chris and Julie. The model focuses on life skills, familial history and access to support services. McGaw and Sturmey (1994) found that if difficulties arise for parents in any of the three areas it Service users maybe uncooperative and reluctant to engage with services, perhaps due to anxieties and fear of consequences. For example; their children being removed from their care and their own childhood experiences. Cultural awareness and age appropriate interventions are necessary to enable partnership working (Egan, 2007 cited in Martin, 2010). Horwath (2011) found that although some social workers faced barriers to the Child-focused Assessment Framework, due to heavy workloads, time restrictions, performance targets and limited training opportunities. Others found that additional bureaucracy gave them a security in their practice. Smale, et al. (1993 ) highlighted the following models of assessment; questioning, procedural, and exchange model. The latter may be beneficial when working in partnership with this family as the service users are viewed as experts and aids their potential for working together towards goals. When working with families communication can be complex; effective communication would include active listening skills, person centred planning and intervention, also avoiding the use of professional jargon (Anning et al, 2006). The worker should be aware of non-verbal communication and power imbalances in their working relationship (DoH, DfES, 2007). It may be advisable for this family to access advocacy services to promote equality, social inclusion and social justice (actionforadvocacy.org.uk, 2012). According to Yuill and Gibson (2011), advocacy promotes anti-oppressive practice. Horwath (2010) suggests positive relationships are built on trust. This echoes the person centred principles of Rogers (1961, cited in Thompson et al, 2008) enabling the practitioner to observe realistic emotional, somatic and behavioural responses from the child and family, that are essential for effective information gathering for assessments (DoH 2006). Martin (2010) argues in order to ensure an understanding of the service user narrative within a multi-professional context the practitioner should reflect and summarise and make accurate recordings. Information should be stored in accordance to the Data Protection Act, 1989 (legislation.gov.uk) and also be shared effectively between multi-agencies and safeguarding departments (Laming, 2003). Numerous children have died from abuse and neglect in the United Kingdom (Brandon et al, 2005). In 2000, Victoria Climbie was subjected to cruelty by her aunt and her partner which resulted in her loss of life. Laming (2003) describes Victorias death as a gross failure of the system and inexcusable and recommended reforms (1.18 p.3). In England, the government published the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH et al 2000) and additional policy guidance came about in Every Child Matters: Change for Children (2003) that made all professionals accountable for safeguarding, child development, focusing on early intervention, joint sense of responsibility and information sharing with integrated front line services and an emphasis on children fulfilling their potential (dcsf.gov.uk 2012). The following year the Children Act (2004) Section 11 (DfES, 2005) gave clear guidance on multi-agency working and states that safeguarding children is everyones busines s. The Children Act 1989 (DoH,1989) and the Children Act 2004 (DoH,2004a) currently underpin child welfare practice in England. The former Act considers the concept of a child in need (section 17) and accentuates the importance family support services who both promote the childs welfare and help safeguard and assist parents in their role. In addition Working Together to Safeguard Children (2010) gives extensive guidance on collaborative working and defines roles and responsibilities of professionals (HM. Government 2010). This guidance is presently being revised and reduced to alleviate bureaucracy for professionals, however Mansuri (2012, cited in McGregor 2012) argues that the real safeguarding concerns are unmanageable caseloads, plummeting moral and cuts to support staff and criticises the government for failing to consult more practitioners regarding these changes. An example for effective working together that may benefit the family in the case scenario is Team around the Family (TAF) intervention. This encourages effective, early identification of additional need, it assesses strengths and is restorative in approach that provides the family opportunities for change and enhances multi-agency collaboration (cheshirewestandchester,2012). Family mentoring services may also be useful in this case (catch-22.2012). Childrens Services in England and Wales adhere to The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH et al 2000). The Assessment Framework provides an ecological approach of the childs developmental needs, parenting capacity, family and environmental factors. This ecological approach was championed by Bronfenbrenner, (1979, cited Martin, 2010) found that by incorporating the microsystem, exosystem and macrosystem benefited both practitioners and service users by enabling wider societies influences of culture and economic circumstances to be considered in assessment (Wilson et al, 2011). This evidenced- based framework aims to ensure that the childs welfare is both promoted and protected (Cleaver et al, 2004). This framework provides a consistent method of collating and analysing information, thus giving practitioners a more coherent understanding of the childs developmental needs, the capacity of their parents and the influence of the extended family and other environmental factors that impact on the family (DoH al, 2000). However, Garrett (2003; Rose, 2002 in Crisp et al, 2007) believe that the underpinning evidence for the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (2000) is problematic. Howarth (2002 in Crisp et al, 2007) suggests that accompanying specific guidance for children from black and ethnic minorities are less widely circulated than the framework document. Katz (1997, cited in Crisp et al, 2007) accuses the framework as being mechanistic checklists used by inexperienced staff as data collection tools and loosing focus on identifying and meeting the needs of children (Horwath, 2002 cited in Crisp et al 2007). Likewise, Munro (2011) challenged all professionals to ensure that our child protection system is centred on the child or young person, as she believes the system has lost its focus on the childs needs and experiences and has been too focused on rules, time-frames in assessment and procedures. At present an initial assessment is carried out ten days from referral and a core assessment must be completed within thirty-five days of an Initial Assessment, and would be undertaken to initiate child protection enquires (DoH et al, 2000). Practitioners use twin tracking and pursue other possibilities for the family (scie-socialcareonline.org.uk). This may be ethically and emotionally difficult for practitioners; they should ensure supervision and adhere to their professional standards of proficiency and ethics (HCPC, 2012). Munro (2011) urges the government to value professional expertise and revise statutory guidance on service intervention and delivery and calls for more focus on understanding the underlying issues that influenced professional practice that resulted in Serious Case Reviews. Munro (2011) also calls for reforming social work training and placement provision for students. The government accepted Munros recommendations and changes to the system will be implemented in 2012 (DfE 2011). Damien (see appendix 1) meets the threshold criteria for intervention under section17 (10) of The Children Act (1989) as his health or development may be significantly impaired without support services. At present he does not appear to be at risk of significant harm, however a core assessment may be beneficial in determining the appropriate support services (HM Government, 2010), examples include Youth Offending Teams (YOT) who deliver crime prevention programmes (youth-offending-team, 2012), Special Educational Needs Coordinators (SENCO) and learning mentors provide support in educational settings (Good schools guide,2012). It is vital throughout the assessment process that practitioners are non-judgmental and use reflective practice and have an awareness of transference and counter-transference to disperse any negative responses and feelings (DoH, 2000; Wilson et al, 2008). The practitioner should draw on theories of human development through the lifespan as well as sociological, biological, psychological and psychosocial theories. For example; biological theory would consider genetic influences, physical development and instinctual behaviours whereas the sociological perspective would emphasise the importance of social factors (Horwath, 2010). It may be that the family are living in poverty and had have not been in receipt of full benefit entitlements or support services; it would be advisable to contact relevant welfare agencies and seek professional assistance for financial support to aid this family (family-action, 2012). The Children Act (1989) states that for the majority of children their family is the most appropriate place for them to live. However, the local authority has a duty of care and Madison (see appendix 1) needs to be accommodated under section 20 of the Children Act (1989), as she is a child in need (section 17) or a child at risk of significant harm (section 47). Chris and Julie have parental responsibility for their children until they are adopted (D of H, 1989; 2000; HM Government, 2010). When assessing families the practitioner should have an understanding of theories that inform practice. In relation to Eriksons (1982) theory of psychosocial stages of development, it could be suggested that Madison is in the fifth stage of development known as; Identity and Repudiation versus Identity diffusion. This stage usually will occur between ages 12-18. Throughout adolescence children are becoming more independent and developing a sense of self. Madison could experience confusion in this stage as she has spent time in kinship and residential care. Erikson (1982) believes with encouragement, reinforcement, and through personal exploration adolescents can leave this stage with a strong identity and direction in life. If Madison fails to pass through this stage successfully she will be insecure about herself and her future (Erikson, 1982 cited in Wilson et al 2008). Hamachek (1988) suggests this theory is ambiguous in identifying behaviours of an individuals psychological growt h throughout different stages of development. Chris and Julie have had one child adopted and have been unable to parent eight of their nine children. During assessment practitioners should have an understanding of attachment categories and relating behaviours; it could be that some of Chris and Julies children developed anxious-ambivalent attachments. Role reversal may have taken place, thus resulting in the children becoming angry about the unreliability of the carer and possibly the reason for them displaying anti-social behaviours Ainsworth (et al., 1978 cited in Becket and Taylor, 2010). Early attachment theory was criticized for denying women equality in the workplace by implying that the risk of mothers leaving their children would be detrimental to their childrens development (Beckett and Taylor, 2010). With regard to Julie and Chris, the local authority could undertake a pre-birth assessment and multi-professional case conference under (section 47) of the Children Act (1989) to evaluate parenting capacity, family and env ironment, and their ability to sustain parenting to meet the childs developing and changing needs (Department of Health 1989; Department of Health, 2010). Specialist assessment tools for parents with learning disabilities would assist the couple in their understanding and partnership planning (McGaw, 2000; cited in Wallbridge, 2012). Both Chris and Julie have completed a parenting course and this is positive as they had not done so previously (Casey 2012). Wallbridge (2012) claims successful support packages offer intensive, continuous training for parenting, for example group work and life skills in the home, both parents feeling valued are often positive catalysts of change. A recent government report (2012) however, identified the child protection system as being reactive rather than proactive with regard to young people accessing services. It warned that professionals gave the parents numerous changes to improve their parenting skills and children were left to live with neglectful parents (publications.parliament.uk, 2012) This essay has critiqued the report Listening to Troubled Families by Louise Casey (2012) and found limitations in the methodology. It considered the needs of a family identified and critiqued the role and skills of a social worker in safeguarding. It has argued the importance of effective multi-professional collaboration, knowledge of contemporary legislation, practice and theories with regard to implementing partnership working to support children, families and carers. It also identified external explanations ; poverty, isolation and late intervention can impact on these families. Munro (2011) urges the government to value professional judgements and change statutory guidance in order to help safeguard children. Bibliography Action for Advocacy (2012) Available at: http://www.actionforadvocacy.org.uk/ [Accessed 25th October 2012] Anning, A. Cottrell, D. Frost, F. Green, J. Robinson, M (2006) Developing Multi-professional Teamwork for Integrated Childrens Services. England. Open University Press. Bailey, N (2012) The Listening to Troubled Families report is an ethical failure. The Guardian, [online] 25th October 2012 Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2012/oct/25/listening-to-troubled-families-report [Accessed 5th November, 2012] BBC News (2006) Eviction threat in respect plan. BBC News [online] 10th January 2006 Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4595788.stm [Accessed 5th November, 2012] Beckett, C., and Taylor. (2010) Human Growth and Development, Second Edition. London. SAGE Publications Ltd. Booth, T and Booth, W. (2004a) Findings from a court study of care proceedings involving parents with intellectual disabilities, Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 1 (3-4), pp.203-209 Brandon,M.,Belderson,P.,Warren,C.,Howe, D.,Gardner,R.,Dodsworth,J.,and Black,J., (2005) Analysing child deaths and serious injury through abuse and neglect: what can we learn? A biennial analysis of serious case reviews 2003-2005. [online] Available at: https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/DCSF-RR023.pdf [Accessed on 11th November 2012] Cameron, D (2011) Tacking Troubled Families: new plans unveiled. Thursday 15th December 2011. Available at: http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/tackling-troubled-families-new-plans-unveiled/ [Accessed 18th October 2012] Cameron, D (2011) We need a social recovery in Britain every bit as much as we need an economic one[online] Thursday 15th December 2011 Available at: http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/troubled-families-speech/ttp://www.number10.gov.uk/news/troubled-families-speech/ [Accessed 18th October 2012] Casey, L (2012) Listening to Troubled Families, Department for Communities. Available at: http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/communities/pdf/2183663.pdf [Accessed on 10th October 2012] Catch 22 (2012) Available at: http://www.catch22.org.uk/Families?gclid=CImi3K_SxbMCFUbKtAodnQUA0Q [Accessed 10th November 2012] Cleaver, H. and Nicholson, D. (2007) Parental Learning Disability and Childrens Needs: Family Experiences and Effective Practice. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Children first: the child protection system in England Education Committee (2012) [online] Available at: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmeduc/137/13706.htm#a38 [Accessed 10th November 2012] Cheshire West and Chester Council (2012) Team around the Family (TAF): [online] 12th August 2012 Available at: http://www.cheshirewestandchester.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=2025 [Accessed on 1st November 2012] Cleaver, H. Nicholson,D. (2007) Parental Learning Disability and Childrens Needs: Family Experiences and Effective Practice. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Clifford,D and Burke,B (2009) Anti-Oppressive Ethics and Values in Social Work. London. Palgrave Macmillan. Crisp,B.,Anderson,M.,Orme,J and Lister,P. (2007) Assessment Frameworks:A Critical Reflection, British Journal of Social Work, 37, pp.1059-1077 Daniel, B. Taylor, J. Scott, J (2009) Noticing and helping the neglected child. London: Department for children, Schools and Families. Data Protection Act 1989 [online] Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/29/contents [Accessed 30th October 2012] Davis, M. (2002) The Blackwell Companion to Social Work. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Department of Health, Department for Education and Skills (2007) Good practice guidance on working with parents with learning disability [online] Available at: http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_075118.pdf [Accessed 10th November 2012] Department of Health (2001) Valuing People: a new strategy for learning disability for the 21st century. Available at: http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4009153 [Accessed on 25th October 2012] Department of Health (2002a) Fair Access to Care Services: Guidance on Eligibility Criteria for Adult Social Care. London. Departmentof Health. Department of Health (1989) An Introduction to the Children Act 1989. HSMO. London. Department of Health (1989) The Children Act 1989 [online] Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/41/contents [Accessed on 11th October 2012] Department of Health, Home Office and Department for Education and Employment (2000) Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families, London. Stationery Office. Department of Health (2003) The Victoria Climbie Inquiry: Summary Report of an Inquiry. London: Department of Health. Department of Health (2010) Working Together to Safeguard Children: A Guide to Inter-agency Working to Safeguard and Promote the Welfare of Children. Available at  : from:https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/standard/publicationdetail/page1/DCSF-00305-2010. [Accessed 10th October 2012] Department of Health (2010) Valuing People Now: The Delivery Plan 2010-2011. Making it happen for everyone Available at: http://base-uk.org/sites/base-uk.org/files/[user-raw]/11-06/valuing_people_now_delivery_plan_2010-11.pdf [Accessed 20th October 2012] Emerson,E. Malam, S. Davies, I Spencer, K.(2005) Adults with Learning Difficulties in England. London: Office for National Statistics Every Child Matters 2004 Available at: http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/ [Accessed on 19th October 2012] Erikson, E (1982) The Lifecycle Completed, cited in Wilson,K.,Ruch, G., Lymbery, M.,Cooper, A. Becker,S.,Brammer,A.,Clawson, R.,Littlechild,B.,Paylor,I.,Smith,R. (2008)Social Work: An introduction to contemporary practice. Essex. Pearson Education Limited. Equality Act 2010 [online] London Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/pdfs/ukpga_20100015_en.pdf [Accessed on 25th October 2012] Family Action- Welfare Support Available from: http://www.family-action.org.uk/home.aspx?id=11578 Family Placements: Available from: http://www.barnardos.org.uk/fosteringandadoption/foster_adopt/fostering/fosteringandadoption_fostering_placements.htm [Accessed on 17th October 2012] Family Action- Welfare Support Available at: http://www.family-action.org.uk/home.aspx?id=11578 [Accessed on 28th October 2012] Featherstone,B. (2006) Rethinking family support in the current policy context, British Journal of Social Work, 36(1), pp.5-19 Gardner, D.S. Tuchman, E. and Hawkins, R. (2010) Teaching Note; A Cross-Curricular, Problem-Based Project to Promote Understanding of Poverty in Urban Communities. Journal of Social Work Education Vol.46, (1) pp 147-156 Glaun, D and Brown, P. (1999) Motherhood, Intellectual Disability and Child Protection: Characteristics of a Court Sample. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabil

Mary, Eve, and Lilith in Shakespeares King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth

Mary, Eve, and Lilith in King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth      Ã‚  Ã‚   Feminist criticism often explores the symbolic or archetypal use of the Biblical figures of Mary and Eve in literary criticism. One figure which seems appropriate to such discussions, but so far neglected it seems, is the figure of Lilith. Indeed, in the case of Shakespearean criticism, Lilith seems an appropriate model at times for such characters as Goneril, Regan, Lady Macbeth, and so forth. Accordingly, it is my intention to explore this lost archetype and relate it to three of Shakespeare's tragedies: King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth.    To begin, Lilith is an enigma in many circles, with varying tales and legends ascribed to her. In certain aspects of Jewish folklore, Lilith is believed to have been the original wife of Adam who was exiled from Eden and replaced with the better known Eve because she refused to submit to Adam's male authority (Grolier "Lilith").    According to one version, she slept with Adam after the Fall and birthed evil spirits and also supposedly the devil and birthed the jinn (Arabic demons of legend, sometimes ascribed as being genies). Later in legend, she became identified as a succubus who caused "nocturnal emissions [associated with "wet dreams in men"] and the birth of witches and demons called lilim." Charms were created to protect from her influence and she was believed to have stolen and slain children (Grolier "Lilith").    She is mentioned in the Talmud in several places. Among these references include:    Rabbi Jerimia ben Eleazar further stated: "In those years, after his expulsion from the Garden of Eden, in which Adam...,was under the ban, he begot ghosts and male demons and fema... ... Rev. ed. Baltimore: Penguin, 1969. 1021-1057. Smith, Jeffrey. "Lilit, Malkah ha-Shadia." Babalon-1. Online. Internet. 25 Apr. 1996. Available Address: http://lark.cc.ukans.edu/~rrosen/lilith/lilit.html [Link no longer active] "The Story of Lilith." Alphabet of Ben Sira 23A-B. Ed. Michael Abrahams. Online. Internet. 25 Apr. 1996. Available Address: http://www.ed.ac.uk/~p92002/lilith.html [Link no longer active] Vanita, Ruth. "'Proper' men and 'fallen' women: the unprotectedness of wives in 'Othello.'" Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900 Spring 1994: 341-356. InfoTrac EF Expanded Academic ASAP 1993-April 1996. CD-ROM. Information Access. April 1996. Zender, Karl F. "The humiliation of Iago." Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900 Spring 1994: 323-339. InfoTrac EF Expanded Academic ASAP 1993-April 1996. CD-ROM. Information Access. April 1996.

Both Liberals and Conservatives Oppose Human Cloning :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

Both Liberals and Conservatives Oppose Human Cloning      Ã‚   The reporting of the debate over human cloning is usually portrayed as a contest between religious opponents of abortion and medical researchers striving to benefit humankind. The stereotype was epitomized in a January 17, 2002, Washington Post story by science reporter Rick Weiss. Implying that opponents of human cloning are the moral equivalent of the Taliban, Weiss wrote:    "In November, researchers announced that they had made the first human embryo clones, giving immediacy to warnings by religious conservatives and others that science is no longer serving the nation's moral will. At the same time, the United States was fighting a war to free a faraway nation from the grip of religious conservatives who were denounced for imposing their moral code on others."(Washington)    The Post ombudsman gently rebuked Weiss for his "real or perceived bias," but the fact that he made the comparison, and that no editor removed it, is revealing.    In reality, the opponents of human cloning are not so easily categorized. For one thing, they include many secular activists associated with the pro-choice left. Last year, in a lopsided bipartisan vote, the House of Representatives passed the Weldon bill (H.2505), which would outlaw both research and reproductive human cloning. Among those supporting the ban were 21 House members whose voting records on abortion were at least 75 percent pro-choice as scored by the National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL).    Now, 68 leftist activists have signed a "Statement in Support of Legislation to Prohibit Cloning." Among them are such notables as activist Jeremy Rifkin, New York University professor Todd Gitlin, novelist Norman Mailer, Commonweal editor Margaret O'Brien, Abortion Access Project director Susan Yanow, New Age spiritual leader Matthew Fox, and Judy Norsigian, author of the feminist manifesto "Our Bodies, Ourselves."    Among arguments against the cloning of human life, these leftists stress the "commercial eugenics" that the new technologies threaten to unleash. They write:    "We are also concerned about the increasing bio-industrialization of life by the scientific community and life science companies and shocked and dismayed that clonal human embryos have been patented and declared to be human "inventions." We oppose efforts to reduce human life and its various parts and processes to the status of mere research tools, manufactured products, commodities, and utilities."(Prepared)    These are points that conservative opponents of cloning have been making for a long time, with limited effect thanks to the media's obsession with the politics of abortion.

An Introduction to Genre Theory Essay

An Introduction to Genre Theory Daniel Chandler 1. The problem of definition A number of perennial doubts plague genre theory. Are genres really ‘out there’ in the world, or are they merely the constructions of analysts? Is there a finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite? Are genres timeless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are genres culturebound or transcultural?†¦ Should genre analysis be descriptive or proscriptive? (Stam 2000, 14) The word genre comes from the French (and originally Latin) word for ‘kind’ or ‘class’. The term is  widely used in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and more recently linguistics, to refer to a distinctive type of ‘text’*. Robert Allen notes that ‘for most of its 2,000 years, genre study has been primarily nominological and typological in function. That is to say, it has taken as its principal task the division of the world of literature into types and the naming of those types – much as the botanist divides the realm of flora into varieties of plants’ (Allen 1989, 44). As will be seen, however, the analogy with biological classification into genus and species misleadingly suggests a ‘scientific’ process. Since classical times literary works have been classified as belonging to general types which were variously defined. In literature the broadest division is between poetry, prose and drama, within which there are further divisions, such as tragedy and comedy within the category of drama. Shakespeare referred satirically to classifications such as ‘tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comicalhistorical-pastoral†¦ ‘ (Hamlet II ii). In The Anatomy of Criticism the formalist literary theorist Northrop Frye (1957) presented certain universal genres and modes  as the key to organizing the entire literary corpus. Contemporary media genres tend to relate more to specific forms than to the universals of tragedy and comedy. Nowadays, films are routinely classified (e. g. in television listings magazines) as ‘thrillers’, ‘westerns’ and so on – genres with which every adult in modern society is familiar. So too with television genres such as ‘game shows’ and ‘sitcoms’. Whilst we have names for countless genres in many media, some theorists have argued that there are also many genres (and sub-genres) for which we have no names (Fowler 1989, 216; Wales 1989, 206). Carolyn Miller  suggests that ‘the number of genres in any society†¦ depends on the complexity and diversity of society’ (Miller 1984, in Freedman & Medway 1994a, 36). The classification and hierarchical taxonomy of genres is not a neutral and ‘objective’ procedure. There are no undisputed ‘maps’ of the system of genres within any medium (though literature may perhaps lay some claim to a loose consensus). Furthermore, there is often considerable theoretical disagreement about the definition of specific genres. ‘A genre is ultimately an abstract conception rather than something that exists empirically in the world,’  notes Jane Feuer (1992, 144). One theorist’s genre may be another’s sub-genre or even super-genre (and indeed what is technique, style, mode, formula or thematic grouping to one may be treated as a genre by another). Themes, at least, seem inadequate as a basis for defining genres since, as David Bordwell notes, ‘any theme may appear in any genre’ (Bordwell 1989, 147). He asks: ‘Are animation and documentary films genres or modes? Is the filmed play or comedy performance a genre? If tragedy and comedy are genres, perhaps then domestic tragedy or slapstick is a formula’. In  passing, he offers a useful inventory of categories used in film criticism, many of which have been accorded the status of genres by various commentators: Grouping by period or country (American films of the 1930s), by director or star or producer or writer or studio, by technical process (Cinemascope films), by cycle (the ‘fallen women’ films), by series (the 007 movies), by style (German Expressionism), by structure (narrative), by ideology (Reaganite cinema), by venue (‘drive-in movies’), by purpose (home movies), by audience (‘teenpix’), by subject or theme (family film, paranoid-politics movies). (Bordwell 1989, 148) Another film theorist, Robert Stam, also refers to common ways of categorizing films: While some genres are based on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical). Some are performer-based (the Astaire-Rogers films) or budget-based (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black cinema), locat[ion] (the Western) or sexual orientation (Queer cinema). (Stam 2000, 14). Bordwell concludes that ‘one could†¦ argue that no set of necessary and sufficient conditions can  mark off genres from other sorts of groupings in ways that all experts or ordinary film-goers would find An Introduction to Genre Theory acceptable’ (Bordwell 1989, 147). Practitioners and the general public make use of their own genre labels (de facto genres) quite apart from those of academic theorists. We might therefore ask ourselves ‘Whose genre is it anyway? ‘ Still further problems with definitional approaches will become apparent in due course. Defining genres may not initially seem particularly problematic but it should already be apparent that it is a theoretical minefield. Robert Stam identifies four key problems with generic labels (in relation to film): extension (the breadth or narrowness of labels); normativism (having preconceived ideas of criteria for genre membership); monolithic definitions (as if an item belonged to only one genre); biologism (a kind of essentialism in which genres are seen as evolving through a standardized life cycle) (Stam 2000, 128129). Conventional definitions of genres tend to be based on the notion that they constitute particular conventions of content (such as themes or settings) and/or form (including structure and style) which  are shared by the texts which are regarded as belonging to them. Alternative characterizations will be discussed in due course. The attempt to define particular genres in terms of necessary and sufficient textual properties is sometimes seen as theoretically attractive but it poses many difficulties. For instance, in the case of films, some seem to be aligned with one genre in content and another genre in form. The film theorist Robert Stam argues that ‘subject matter is the weakest criterion for generic grouping because it fails to take into account how the subject is treated’ (Stam 2000, 14). Outlining a fundamental problem of  genre identification in relation to films, Andrew Tudor notes the ’empiricist dilemma’: To take a genre such as the ‘western’, analyze it, and list its principal characteristics, is to beg the question that we must first isolate the body of films which are ‘westerns’. But they can only be isolated on the basis of the ‘principal characteristics’ which can only be discovered from the films themselves after they have been isolated. (Cited in Gledhill 1985, 59) It is seldom hard to find texts which are exceptions to any given definition of a particular genre. There are no ‘rigid rules of inclusion and exclusion’ (Gledhill 1985, 60). ‘Genres†¦ are not discrete systems, consisting of a fixed number of listable items’ (ibid. , 64). It is difficult to make clear-cut distinctions between one genre and another: genres overlap, and there are ‘mixed genres’ (such as comedy-thrillers). 2 Specific genres tend to be easy to recognize intuitively but difficult (if not impossible) to define. Particular features which are characteristic of a genre are not normally unique to it; it is their relative prominence, combination and functions which are distinctive (Neale 1980, 22-3). It is easy to underplay the differences within a genre. Steve Neale declares  that ‘genres are instances of repetition and difference’ (Neale 1980, 48). He adds that ‘difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre’ (ibid. , 50): mere repetition would not attract an audience. Tzvetan Todorov argued that ‘any instance of a genre will be necessarily different’ (cited in Gledhill 1985, 60). John Hartley notes that ‘the addition of just one film to the Western genre†¦ changes that genre as a whole – even though the Western in question may display few of the recognized conventions, styles or subject matters traditionally associated with its genre’ (O’Sullivan et al. 1994). The issue of difference also  highlights the fact that some genres are ‘looser’ more open-ended in their conventions or more permeable in their boundaries – than others. Texts often exhibit the conventions of more than one genre. John Hartley notes that ‘the same text can belong to different genres in different countries or times’ (O’Sullivan et al. 1994, 129). Hybrid genres abound (at least outside theoretical frameworks). Van Leeuwen suggests that the multiple purposes of journalism often lead to generically heterogeneous texts (cited in Fairclough 1995, 88). Norman Fairclough suggests that mixed-genre texts are far from uncommon in the mass media (Fairclough 1995, 89). Some media may encourage more generic diversity: Nicholas Abercrombie notes that since ‘television comes at the audience as a flow of programmes, all with different generic conventions, means that it is more difficult to sustain the purity of the genre in the viewing experience’ (Abercrombie 1996, 45; his emphasis). Furthermore, in any medium the generic classification of certain texts may be uncertain or subject to dispute. Contemporary theorists tend to describe genres in terms of ‘family resemblances’ among texts (a notion derived from the philosopher Wittgenstein) rather than definitionally (Swales 1990, 49). An individual text within a genre rarely if ever has all of the characteristic features of the genre (Fowler 1989, 215). The family resemblance approaches involves the theorist illustrating similarities between some of the texts within a genre. However, the family resemblance approach has been criticized on the basis that ‘no choice of a text for illustrative purposes is innocent’ (David Lodge, cited in Swales 1990, 50), and that such theories can make any text seem to resemble any other one (Swales 1990, 51). In addition to the definitional and family resemblance approach, there is  An Introduction to Genre Theory another approach to describing genres which is based on the psycholinguistic concept of prototypicality. According to this approach, some texts would be widely regarded as being more typical members of a genre than others. According to this approach certain features would ‘identify the extent to which an exemplar is prototypical of a particular genre’ (Swales 1990, 52). Genres can therefore be seen as ‘fuzzy’ categories which cannot be defined by necessary and sufficient conditions. How we define a genre depends on our purposes;  the adequacy of our definition in terms of social science at least must surely be related to the light that the exploration sheds on the phenomenon. For instance (and this is a key concern of mine), if we are studying the way in which genre frames the reader’s interpretation of a text then we would do well to focus on how readers identify genres rather than on theoretical distinctions. Defining genres may be problematic, but even if theorists were to abandon the concept, in everyday life people would continue to categorize texts. John Swales does note that ‘a discourse community’s nomenclature for genres is an  important source of insight’ (Swales 1990, 54), though like many academic theorists he later adds that such genre names ‘typically need further validation’ (ibid. , 58). Some genre names would be likely to be more widely-used than others: it would be interesting to investigate the areas of popular consensus and dissensus in relation to the everyday labeling of mass media genres. For Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress, ‘genres only exist in so far as a social group declares and enforces the rules that constitute them’ (Hodge & Kress 1988, 7), though it is debatable to  what extent most of us would be able to formulate explicit ‘rules’ for the textual genres we use routinely: much of our genre knowledge is likely to be tacit. In relation to film, Andrew Tudor argued that genre is ‘what we collectively believe it to be’ (though this begs the question about who ‘we’ are). Robert Allen comments wryly that ‘Tudor even hints that in order to establish what audiences expect a western to be like we might have to ask them’ (Allen 1989, 47). Swales also alludes to people having ‘repertoires of genres’ (Swales 1990, 58), which I would argue would also be likely to repay  investigation. However, as David Buckingham notes, ‘there has hardly been any empirical research on the ways in which real audiences might understand genre, or use this understanding in making sense of specific texts’ (Buckingham 1993, 137). Steve Neale stresses that ‘genres are not systems: they are processes of systematization’ (Neale 1980, 51; my emphasis; cf. Neale 1995, 463). Traditionally, genres (particularly literary genres) tended to be regarded 3 as fixed forms, but contemporary theory emphasizes that both their forms and functions are dynamic. David Buckingham argues that ‘genre is not†¦ simply â€Å"given† by the culture: rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and change’ (Buckingham 1993, 137). Nicholas Abercrombie suggests that ‘the boundaries between genres are shifting and becoming more permeable’ (Abercrombie 1996, 45); Abercrombie is concerned with modern television, which he suggests seems to be engaged in ‘a steady dismantling of genre’ (ibid. ) which can be attributed in part to economic pressures to pursue new audiences. One may acknowledge the dynamic fluidity of genres without positing the final demise of genre as an interpretive framework. As the generic corpus ceaselessly expands, genres (and the relationships between them) change over time; the conventions of each genre shift, new genres and sub-genres emerge and others are ‘discontinued’ (though note that certain genres seem particularly long-lasting). Tzvetan Todorov argued that ‘a new genre is always the transformation of one or several old genres’ (cited in Swales 1990, 36). Each new work within a genre has the potential to influence changes within the genre or perhaps the emergence of new sub-genres (which may later blossom into fully-fledged genres). However, such a perspective tends to highlight the role of authorial experimentation in changing genres and their conventions, whereas it is important to recognize not only the social nature of text production but especially the role of economic and technological factors as well as changing audience preferences. The interaction between genres and media can be seen as one of the forces which contributes to changing genres. Some genres are more powerful than others: they differ in the status which is attributed to them by those who produce texts within them and by their audiences. As Tony Thwaites et al. put it, ‘in the interaction and conflicts among genres we can see the connections between textuality and power’ (Thwaites et al. 1994, 104). The key genres in institutions which are ‘primary definers’ (such as news reports in the mass media) help to establish the frameworks within which issues are defined. But genre hierarchies also shift over time, with individual genres constantly gaining and losing different groups of users and relative status. Idealist theoretical approaches to genre which seek to categorize ‘ideal types’ in terms of essential textual characteristics are ahistorical. As a result of  their dynamic nature as processes, Neale argues that definitions of genre ‘are always historically relative, and therefore historically specific’ (Neale 1995, 464). Similarly, Boris Tomashevsky insists that ‘no firm logical classification of genres is possible. Their de- An Introduction to Genre Theory marcation is always historical, that is to say, it is correct only for a specific moment of history’ (cited in Bordwell 1989, 147). Some genres are defined only retrospectively, being unrecognized as such by the original producers and audiences. Genres need to be studied as historical phenomena; a popular focus in  film studies, for instance, has been the evolution of conventions within a genre. Current genres go through phases or cycles of popularity (such as the cycle of disaster films in the 1970s), sometimes becoming ‘dormant’ for a period rather than disappearing. On-going genres and their conventions themselves change over time. Reviewing ‘evolutionary change’ in some popular film genres, Andrew Tudor concludes that it has three main characteristics: First, in that innovations are added to an existent corpus rather than replacing redundant elements, it is cumulative. Second, in that  these innovations must be basically consistent with what is already present, it is ‘conservative’. Third, in that these processes lead to the crystallization of specialist sub-genres, it involves differentiation. (Tudor 1974, 225-6) Tudor himself is cautious about adopting the biological analogy of evolution, with its implication that only those genres which are well-adapted to their functions survive. Christine Gledhill also notes the danger of essentialism in selecting definitive ‘classic’ examples towards which earlier examples ‘evolve’ and after which others ‘decline’ (Gledhill 1985, 59). The cycles and transformations of genres can nevertheless be seen as a response to political, social and economic conditions. Referring to film, Andrew Tudor notes that ‘a genre†¦ defines a moral and social world’ (Tudor 1974, 180). Indeed, a genre in any medium can be seen as embodying certain values and ideological assumptions. Again in the context of the cinema Susan Hayward argues that genre conventions change ‘according to the ideological climate of the time’, contrasting John Wayne westerns with Clint Eastwood as the problematic hero or anti-hero (Hayward 1996, 50). Leo Baudry (cited in Hayward 1996, 162) sees film genres as a barometer of the social and cultural concerns of cinema audiences; Robert Lichter et al. (1991) illustrate how televisual genres reflect the values of the programme-makers. Some commentators see mass media genres from a particular era as reflecting values which were dominant at the time. Ira Konigsberg, for instance, suggests that texts within genres embody the moral values of a culture (Konigsberg 1987, 144-5). And John Fiske asserts that generic conventions ’embody the crucial ideological concerns of the time in which they are popular’ 4 (Fiske 1987, 110). However, Steve Neale stresses that genres may also help to shape such values (Neale 1980, 16). Thwaites et al. see the relationship as reciprocal: ‘a genre develops according to social conditions; transformations in genre and texts can influence and reinforce social conditions’ (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100). Some Marxist commentators see genre as an instrument of social control which reproduces the dominant ideology. Within this perspective, the genre ‘positions’ the audience in order to naturalize the ideologies which are embedded in the text (Feuer 1992, 145). Bernadette Casey comments that ‘recently, structuralists and feminist theorists, among others, have focused on the way in which generically defined structures may operate to construct particular ideologies and values, and to encourage reassuring and conservative interpretations of a given text’ (Casey 193, 312). However, reader-oriented commentators have stressed that people are capable of ‘reading against the grain’. Thomas and Vivian Sobchack note that in the past popular film-makers, ‘intent on telling a story’, were not always aware of ‘the covert psychological and social†¦Ã‚  subtext’ of their own films, but add that modern film-makers and their audiences are now ‘more keenly aware of the myth-making accomplished by film genres’ (Sobchack & Sobchack 1980, 245). Genre can reflect a function which in relation to television Horace Newcombe and Paul Hirsch referred to as a ‘cultural forum’, in which industry and audience negotiate shared beliefs and values, helping to maintain the social order and assisting it in adapting to change (Feuer 1992, 145). Certainly, genres are far from being ideologically neutral. Sonia Livingstone argues, indeed, that ‘different genres are concerned to establish different world views’ (Livingstone 1990, 155). Related to the ideological dimension of genres is one modern redefinition in terms of purposes. In relation to writing, Carolyn Miller argues that ‘a rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish’ (Carolyn Miller 1984, in Freedman & Medway 1994a, 24). Following this lead, John Swales declares that ‘the principal criterial feature that turns a collection of communicative  events into a genre is some shared set of communicative purposes’ (Swales 1990, 46). In relation to the mass media it can be fruitful to consider in relation to genre the purposes not only of the producers of texts but also of those who interpret them (which need not be assumed always to match). A consensus about the primary purposes of some genres (such as news bulletins) – and of their readers – is probably easier to establish than in relation to others (such as westerns), where the very term ‘purpose’ sounds too in- An Introduction to Genre Theory strumental. However, ‘uses and gratifications’ researchers have already conducted investigations into the various functions that the mass media seem to serve for people, and ethnographic studies have offered fruitful insights into this dimension. Miller argues that both in writing and reading within genres we learn purposes appropriate to the genre; in relation to the mass media it could be argued that particular genres develop, frame and legitimate particular concerns, questions and pleasures. Related redefinitions of genre focus more broadly on the relationship between the makers and audiences  of texts (a rhetorical dimension). To varying extents, the formal features of genres establish the relationship between producers and interpreters. Indeed, in relation to mass media texts Andrew Tolson redefines genre as ‘a category which mediates between industry and audience’ (Tolson 1996, 92). Note that such approaches undermine the definition of genres as purely textual types, which excludes any reference even to intended audiences. A basic model underlying contemporary media theory is a triangular relationship between the text, its producers and its interpreters. From the perspective of many recent commentators, genres first and foremost provide frameworks within which texts are produced and interpreted. Semiotically, a genre can be seen as a shared code between the producers and interpreters of texts included within it. Alastair Fowler goes so far as to suggest that ‘communication is impossible without the agreed codes of genre’ (Fowler 1989, 216). Within genres, texts embody authorial attempts to ‘position’ readers using particular ‘modes of address’. Gunther Kress observes that: Every genre positions those who participate in  a text of that kind: as interviewer or interviewee, as listener or storyteller, as a reader or a writer, as a person interested in political matters, as someone to be instructed or as someone who instructs; each of these positionings implies different possibilities for response and for action. Each written text provides a ‘reading position’ for readers, a position constructed by the writer for the ‘ideal reader’ of the text. (Kress 1988, 107) Thus, embedded within texts are assumptions about the ‘ideal reader’, including their attitudes towards the subject matter and often their class, age, gender and ethnicity. Gunther Kress defines a genre as ‘a kind of text that derives its form from the structure of a (frequently repeated) social occasion, with its characteristic participants and their purposes’ (Kress 1988, 183). An interpretative emphasis on genre as opposed 5 to individual texts can help to remind us of the social nature of the production and interpretation of texts. In relation to film, many modern commentators refer to the commercial and industrial significance of genres. Denis McQuail argues that: The genre may be considered as a practical  device for helping any mass medium to produce consistently and efficiently and to relate its production to the expectations of its customers. Since it is also a practical device for enabling individual media users to plan their choices, it can be considered as a mechanism for ordering the relations between the two main parties to mass communication. (McQuail 1987, 200) Steve Neale observes that ‘genres†¦ exist within the context of a set of economic relations and practices’, though he adds that ‘genres are not the product of economic factors as such. The conditions provided by the capitalist economy account neither for the existence of the particular genres that have hitherto been produced, nor for the existence of the conventions that constitute them’ (Neale 1980, 51-2). Economic factors may account for the perpetuation of a profitable genre. Nicholas Abercrombie notes that ‘television producers set out to exploit genre conventions†¦ It†¦ makes sound economic sense. Sets, properties and costumes can be used over and over again. Teams of stars, writers, directors and technicians can be built up, giving economies of scale’ (Abercrombie 1996, 43). He adds that ‘genres permit the creation and maintenance of a loyal audience which becomes used to seeing programmes within a genre’ (ibid. ). Genres can be seen as ‘a means of controlling demand’ (Neale 1980, 55). The relative stability of genres enables producers to predict audience expectations. Christine Gledhill notes that ‘differences between genres meant different audiences could be identified and catered to†¦ This made it easier to standardize and stabilise production’ (Gledhill 1985, 58). In relation to the mass media, genre is part of the process of targeting different market sectors. Traditionally, literary and film critics in particular have regarded ‘generic’ texts (by which they mean ‘formulaic’ texts) as inferior to those which they contend are produced outside a generic framework. Indeed, film theorists frequently refer to popular films as ‘genre films’ in contrast to ‘non-formula films’. Elitist critics reject the ‘generic fiction’ of the mass media because they are commercial products of popular culture rather than ‘high art’. Many harbor the Romantic ideology of the primacy of authorial ‘originality’ and ‘vision’, emphasizing individual style  and artistic ‘self-expression’. In this tradition the An Introduction to Genre Theory artist (in any medium) is seen as breaking the mould of convention. For the Italian aesthetician Benedetto Croce (1866-1952), an artistic work was always unique and there could be no artistic genres. More recently, some literary and film theorists have accorded more importance to genre, counteracting the ideology of authorial primacy (or ‘auteurism’, as it is known in relation to the emphasis on the director in film). Contemporary theorists tend to emphasize the importance of the semiotic notion of intertextuality: of seeing individual texts in relation to others. Katie Wales notes that ‘genre is†¦ an intertextual concept’ (Wales 1989, 259). John Hartley suggests that ‘we need to understand genre as a property of the relations between texts’ (O’Sullivan et al. 1994, 128). And as Tony Thwaites et al. put it, ‘each text is influenced by the generic rules in the way it is put together; the generic rules are reinforced by each text’ (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100). Roland Barthes (1975) argued that it is in relation to other texts within a genre rather than in relation to lived experience that we make sense of certain  events within a text. There are analogies here with schema theory in psychology, which proposes that we have mental ‘scripts’ which help us to interpret 6 familiar events in everyday life. John Fiske offers this striking example: A representation of a car chase only makes sense in relation to all the others we have seen – after all, we are unlikely to have experienced one in reality, and if we did, we would, according to this model, make sense of it by turning it into another text, which we would also understand intertextually, in terms of what we have seen so often on our screens. There is then a cultural knowledge of the concept ‘car chase’ that any one text is a prospectus for, and that it used by the viewer to decode it, and by the producer to encode it. (Fiske 1987, 115) In contrast to those of a traditionalist literary bent who tend to present ‘artistic’ texts as nongeneric, it could be argued that it is impossible to produce texts which bear no relationship whatsoever to established genres. Indeed, Jacques Derrida proposed that ‘a text cannot belong to no genre, it cannot be without†¦ a genre. Every text participates in one or several genres, there is no genre-less text’  (Derrida 1981, 61). Note *In these notes, words such as text, reader and writer are sometimes used as general terms relating to ‘texts’ (and so on) in whatever medium is being discussed: no privileging of the written word (graphocentrism) is intended. Whilst it is hard to find an alternative for the word texts, terms such as makers and interpreters are sometimes used here as terms non-specific to particular media instead of the terms writers and readers. 2. Working within genres John Hartley argues that ‘genres are agents of ideological closure – they limit the meaning-potential  of a given text’ (O’Sullivan et al. 1994, 128). Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress define genres as ‘typical forms of texts which link kinds of producer, consumer, topic, medium, manner and occasion’, adding that they ‘control the behavior of producers of such texts, and the expectations of potential consumers’ (Hodge & Kress 1988, 7). Genres can be seen as constituting a kind of tacit contract between authors and readers. From the traditional Romantic perspective, genres are seen as constraining and inhibiting authorial creativity. However, contemporary theorists, even  within literary studies, typically reject this view (e. g. Fowler 1982: 31). Gledhill notes that one perspective on this issue is that some of those who write within a genre work in creative ‘tension’ with the conventions, attempting a personal inflection of them (Gledhill 1985: 63). From the point of view of the producers of texts within a genre, an advantage of genres is that they can rely on readers already having knowledge and expectations about works within a genre. Fowler comments that ‘the system of generic expectations amounts to a code, by the use of which  (or by departure from which) composition becomes more economical’ (Fowler 1989: 215). Genres can thus be seen as a kind of shorthand serving to increase the ‘efficiency’ of communication. They may even function as a means of preventing a text from dissolving into ‘individualism and incomprehensibility’ (Gledhill 1985: 63). And whilst writing within a genre involves making use of certain ‘given’ conventions, every work within a genre also involves the invention of some new elements. An Introduction to Genre Theory As for reading within genres, some argue that knowledge of genre conventions leads to passive  consumption of generic texts; others argue that making sense of texts within genres is an active process of constructing meaning (Knight 1994). Genre provides an important frame of reference which helps readers to identify, select and interpret texts. Indeed, in relation to advertisements, Varda Langholz Leymore argues that the sense which viewers make of any single text depends on how it relates to the genre as a whole (Langholz Leymore 1975, ix). Key psychological functions of genre are likely to include those shared by categorization generally – such as reducing complexity.